This article is adapted from the Wikipedia entry on Prohairesis.
Prohairesis (προαίρεσις in Greek) is a philosophical term with roots in ancient Greek philosophy. The term is derived from the Greek word proairesis (προαιρέσεις), meaning “choice” or “decision”. In English, prohairesis is commonly translated as “volition”, “will”, “deliberate choice”, or “decision-making faculty”.
Usage of prohairesis can be traced back to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, where Aristotle discusses the concept as the capacity for rational choice that sets humans apart from other animals. In Stoicism, the term was used to describe the rational faculty of the soul that makes decisions and takes actions. The Stoics believed that the development and training of prohairesis through philosophy was a key component of a virtuous life.
Later on, the term was adopted by Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus, who used it to describe the faculty of the soul that participates in the divine will and helps the soul align with ultimate reality.
Prohairesis in Stoicism
Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher, saw prohairesis as the faculty that distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. The concept plays a central role in the Discourses and in the Enchiridion, with the terms prohairesis, prohairetic, and aprohairetic appearing some 168 times.
According to Epictetus, nothing is properly considered either good, or bad, aside from those things that are up to us (within our own power to control), and the only thing that is truly up to us is our own will (prohairesis), which exercises the faculty of choice that we use to judge our impressions.
If a person says something critical to us, that is not bad. If something complimentary is said, that is not good. These things are externals and not in our power to control. By exerting the power of choice, it is possible to maintain a state of mental calmness, composure, and emotional stability (equanimity) in the face of either criticism and praise. Equanimity is seen as a moral good.
When people become troubled by criticism, or elated by praise, that is a moral evil because they have misjudged impressions by thinking that things not up to them (such as criticism or praise) have value, and by doing that they place a measure of control of their own life in the hands of others.
The importance of prohairesis for Epictetus is that it exerts a power that allows people to choose how they will react to impressions rationally:
Remember that what is insulting is not the person who abuses or hits you, but the judgment that these things are insulting. So when someone irritates you, realize that it is your own opinion that has irritated you. Try, therefore, in the first place, not to be carried away by the impression; for if you once gain time and respite, you will find it easier to control yourself.
The Enchiridion of Epictetus, Chapter 20
By exerting their will, people can choose rationally how to react to impressions. Prohairesis is the faculty that distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. Epictetus defines it as:
- a rational faculty able to use the impressions and to which all other human faculties are subordinated (e.g., Discourses II.23.6–15; II.23.20–29)
- a faculty capable of using impressions and understanding their use (e.g., Discourses II.8.4–8)
- a self-theoretical faculty able to evaluate all other human faculties (e.g., Discourses I.1.1–13; I.17.1–3; I.20.1–6)
- a faculty impossible to be enslaved (e.g., Discourses II.10.1; I.17.21) and impossible to subordinate (e.g., Discourses II.10.1; I.17.21; IV.1.161)
Further Reading
- Chamberlain, Charles – The Meaning of Prohairesis in Aristotle’s Ethics
- Christodoulou, Marina – The question of the Freedom of Will in Epictetus
- Dobbin, Robert Francis – The sense of self in Epictetus: Prohairesis and prosopon
- Gambardella, Steven – What is Prohairesis? The Stoic Understanding of Choice, Control and Freedom
- Sadler, Greg
- Scalenghe, Franco – ‘Proairesis’, ‘Proairetic’ and ‘Aproairetic’: Synopsis of All the Passages Containing these Terms in the ‘Discourses’ and the ‘Manual’ of Epictetus
- Semler, Stephanie – Choosing It: The Meaning of Prohairesis in Aristotle’s Ethics
- Waterfield, Robin – Epictetus: The Complete Works [The introduction is an excellent introduction to Epictetus and includes an overview of Epictetus’ views on the will]
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